7522_xml 20200926100000 assa nadiag@assaf.org.za assa South African Journal of Science S. Afr. J. Sci 1996-7489 09292020 116 9/10 Fatima H. Ragie School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2698-2845 David W. Olivier Global Change Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6037-9150 Lori M. Hunter Institute of Behavioral Science, CU Population Center, Department of Sociology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, USA MRC/Wits-Rural Public Health and Health Transitions Unit (Agincourt), School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3450-9791 Barend F.N. Erasmus Global Change Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa *Present address: Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1869-8091 Coleen Vogel Global Change Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3842-8489 Mark Collinson MRC/Wits-Rural Public Health and Health Transitions Unit (Agincourt), School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa DSI/MRC South African Population Research Infrastructure Network (SAPRIN), University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8205-7099 Wayne Twine School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4163-198X Land-based income streams, which include the consumption and selling of crops, livestock and environmental products, are inherent in rural households’ livelihoods. However, the off-farm cash income stream – primarily composed of migrant labour remittances, social grants, and savings and loans – is increasing in importance in many regions. This case study of 590 households from Bushbuckridge, South Africa, analyses the economic value of each of these income streams at three points: what enters the household, what is used and what is sold. Two important findings emerge. First, dependence on offfarm cash incomes is far higher than previously suggested by case studies in the area and the benefits of employment accrue to those already better educated and wealthier. This suggests that shifts in offfarm opportunities will exacerbate already deep inequalities. Second, while environmental products and crops are important for direct use, they generate insignificant cash incomes from sales. This suggests a weakening of the direct links between the local ecosystem and this society, challenging traditional notions of African rurality being intrinsically land based. 09292020 1 10.17159/sajs.2016/crossmark sajs.co.za false 2019-10-25 2020-04-16 2020-09-25 Wellcome Trust http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100004440 085477/Z/08/Z National Institute of Child Health and Human Development http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000071 2P2CHD066613-06 National Research Foundation of South Africa https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ 10.17159/sajs.2020/7522 20200926100000 https://www.sajs.co.za/article/view/7522 https://www.sajs.co.za/article/view/7522/10474 https://www.sajs.co.za/article/view/7522/10474 https://www.sajs.co.za/article/view/7522/10474 https://www.sajs.co.za/article/view/7522/10474 https://www.sajs.co.za/article/view/7522/10474 https://www.sajs.co.za/article/view/7522/10474 https://www.sajs.co.za/article/view/7522/10474