y2016m05b21 20160727103700 assa nadine@assaf.org.za assa South African Journal of Science S. Afr. J. Sci 0038-2353 1996-7489 07272016 Volume 112 Number 7/8 English Edward J. Odes School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Evolutionary Studies Institute, School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Patrick S. Randolph-Quinney http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0694-5868 School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Evolutionary Studies Institute, School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa School of Forensic and Applied Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, Lancashire, United Kingdom Maryna Steyn School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Zach Throckmorton Evolutionary Studies Institute, School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa De Busk College of Osteopathic Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee, USA Jacqueline S. Smilg Evolutionary Studies Institute, School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa School of Radiation Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Department of Radiology, Charlotte Maxeke Academic Hospital, Johannesburg, South Africa Bernhard Zipfel Evolutionary Studies Institute, School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa DST/NRF South African Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Tanya N. Augustine School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Frikkie de Beer Radiography/Tomography Section, South African Nuclear Energy Corporation (NECSA), Pelindaba, South Africa Jakobus W. Hoffman Radiography/Tomography Section, South African Nuclear Energy Corporation (NECSA), Pelindaba, South Africa Ryan D. Franklin Archaeological and Historical Conservancy, Davie, Florida, USA Lee R. Berger http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0367-7629 Evolutionary Studies Institute, School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa DST/NRF South African Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Abstract The reported incidence of neoplasia in the extinct human lineage is rare, with only a few confirmed cases of Middle or Later Pleistocene dates reported. It has generally been assumed that pre-modern incidence of neoplastic disease of any kind is rare and limited to benign conditions, but new fossil evidence suggests otherwise. We here present the earliest identifiable case of malignant neoplastic disease from an early human ancestor dated to 1.8–1.6 million years old. The diagnosis has been made possible only by advances in 3D imaging methods as diagnostic aids. We present a case report based on re-analysis of a hominin metatarsal specimen (SK 7923) from the cave site of Swartkrans in the Cradle of Humankind, South Africa. The expression of malignant osteosarcoma in the Swartkrans specimen indicates that whilst the upsurge in malignancy incidence is correlated with modern lifestyles, there is no reason to suspect that primary bone tumours would have been any less frequent in ancient specimens. Such tumours are not related to lifestyle and often occur in younger individuals. As such, malignancy has a considerable antiquity in the fossil record, as evidenced by this specimen. 07272016 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/za/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/za/ 10.17159/sajs.2016/20150471 20160727103700 http://sajs.co.za/earliest-hominin-cancer-1-7-million-year-old-osteosarcoma-swartkrans-cave-south-africa/edward-j-odes-patrick-s-randolph-quinney-maryna-steyn-zach-throckmorton-jacqueline-s-smilg-bernhard http://sajs.co.za/sites/default/files/publications/pdf/SAJS%20112_7-8_Odes_Research%20Article.pdf http://sajs.co.za/sites/default/files/publications/pdf/SAJS%20112_7-8_Odes_Research%20Article.pdf http://sajs.co.za/sites/default/files/publications/pdf/SAJS%20112_7-8_Odes_Research%20Article.pdf http://sajs.co.za/sites/default/files/publications/pdf/SAJS%20112_7-8_Odes_Research%20Article.pdf http://sajs.co.za/sites/default/files/publications/pdf/SAJS%20112_7-8_Odes_Research%20Article.pdf http://sajs.co.za/sites/default/files/publications/pdf/SAJS%20112_7-8_Odes_Research%20Article.pdf http://sajs.co.za/sites/default/files/publications/pdf/SAJS%20112_7-8_Odes_Research%20Article.pdf